Foundations in English Language Teaching

3.1 Understanding Vocabulary Knowledge

Vocabulary knowledge is multifaceted and involves much more than simply knowing a word's definition.

What Does It Mean to "Know" a Word?

According to Nation (2001), knowing a word involves understanding:

• Form: How it sounds (pronunciation), how it looks (spelling), and its parts (prefixes, roots, suffixes).
• Meaning: Its core definition(s), concepts and referents, and associations with other words.
• Use: Its grammatical functions, collocations (words it commonly appears with), and register constraints (formal/informal, etc.).

Receptive vs. Productive Vocabulary

• Receptive Knowledge: Words learners recognize and understand when reading or listening.
• Productive Knowledge: Words learners can accurately use in speaking and writing.

Typically, a learner's receptive vocabulary is larger than their productive vocabulary. Teaching should aim to move words from receptive to productive knowledge.

Vocabulary Size and Learning Goals

• Native English speakers know approximately 20,000 word families.
• Research suggests that 3,000 word families cover about 95% of everyday texts.
• Academic texts require knowledge of about 8,000-9,000 word families for comfortable reading.

3.2 Principles for Vocabulary Teaching

Effective vocabulary instruction follows several key principles:

Selection: Which Words to Teach?

• Frequency: Focus on high-frequency words before low-frequency ones.
• Coverage: Prioritize words that appear across multiple contexts.
• Usefulness: Teach words relevant to learners' immediate needs and interests.
• Learnability: Consider how easily words can be learned (cognates, concrete vs. abstract).
• Teachability: Select words that can be clearly explained or demonstrated.

Presentation: How to Introduce New Vocabulary

• Context: Present words in meaningful contexts (texts, dialogues, situations).
• Multiple Exposures: Ensure learners encounter new words multiple times.
• Multiple Modalities: Engage different senses (visual, auditory, kinesthetic).
• Clear Explanations: Use definitions, examples, visuals, L1 equivalents when appropriate.
• Personalization: Connect words to learners' experiences and interests.

Practice: How to Reinforce Vocabulary Learning

• Retrieval: Activities that require recalling words from memory.
• Generative Use: Using words in new contexts and combinations.
• Spaced Repetition: Reviewing words at increasing intervals over time.
• Deep Processing: Tasks requiring deeper thought about word meanings and relationships.
• Multimodal Engagement: Activities involving speaking, listening, reading, and writing.

3.3 Practical Techniques for Vocabulary Teaching

A variety of techniques can make vocabulary instruction engaging and effective:

Presentation Techniques

• Visual Aids: Pictures, realia (real objects), videos, gestures, mime.
• Verbal Techniques: Definitions, examples, synonyms/antonyms, stories.
• Translation: L1 equivalents (when appropriate and accurate).
• Word Parts: Analyzing prefixes, roots, and suffixes.
• Contextual Guessing: Inferring meaning from surrounding context.

Practice Activities

• Matching: Words with definitions, pictures, synonyms, etc.
• Categorization: Grouping words by topic, function, or other features.
• Gap-fills: Completing sentences or texts with target vocabulary.
• Word Maps: Creating visual representations of word relationships.
• Games: Crosswords, Pictionary, Taboo, Bingo, etc.
• Role-plays: Using target vocabulary in simulated real-life situations.
• Personal Connections: Writing or speaking about personal experiences using target words.

Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Teaching learners how to learn vocabulary independently is crucial:

• Dictionary Skills: Effectively using monolingual and bilingual dictionaries.
• Vocabulary Notebooks: Organizing and recording new words systematically.
• Word Cards/Flashcards: Creating and using physical or digital flashcards.
• Word Analysis: Recognizing word parts and word families.
• Mnemonic Techniques: Using imagery, association, and other memory aids.
• Digital Tools: Using apps and websites for vocabulary practice.

3.4 Approaches to Grammar Teaching

Grammar instruction has evolved significantly over time, with various approaches emphasizing different aspects of learning:

Key Approaches

Approach	Description	Classroom Application
Grammar-Translation	Explicit teaching of rules, translation exercises, focus on accuracy.	Detailed explanations, rule memorization, translation practice.
Direct Method	No L1 use, grammar taught inductively through examples.	Demonstration, practice in target language only, conversation.
Audio-lingual Method	Grammar as habits formed through pattern drills and repetition.	Substitution drills, repetition exercises, minimal explanation.
Communicative Language Teaching	Grammar serves communication; focus on meaning and function.	Task-based activities, authentic materials, fluency over accuracy.
Focus on Form	Attention to grammar within meaningful communication.	Noticing activities, corrective feedback during tasks.

Deductive vs. Inductive Teaching

• Deductive Approach: Rule first, then examples and practice (rule → examples → practice).
• Inductive Approach: Examples first, learners discover rules (examples → rule discovery → practice).

Explicit vs. Implicit Learning

• Explicit Learning: Conscious attention to rules and structures.
• Implicit Learning: Unconscious acquisition through exposure and use.

Research suggests that both explicit and implicit learning have roles in grammar acquisition, with explicit instruction often accelerating the process.

3.5 Practical Techniques for Grammar Teaching

Effective grammar instruction involves a variety of techniques across the presentation, practice, and production stages:

Presentation Techniques

• Text-based Presentation: Introducing grammar through reading or listening texts where the target structure appears naturally.
• Situation-based Presentation: Creating a realistic situation that naturally requires the target structure.
• Visual Presentation: Using timelines, charts, or diagrams to illustrate grammatical concepts.
• Guided Discovery: Providing examples and guiding questions to help learners notice patterns and formulate rules.
• Explicit Explanation: Clearly explaining rules, forms, and usage with examples.
• Contrastive Analysis: Comparing the target structure with similar structures in L1 or previously learned structures.

Practice Activities

• Controlled Practice: Exercises with clear right/wrong answers (gap-fills, transformation exercises, multiple-choice).
• Semi-controlled Practice: More open-ended but still focused on the target structure (sentence completion, picture description with prompts).
• Communicative Practice: Meaningful activities requiring the target structure for successful completion (information gaps, surveys, interviews).
• Games: Board games, card games, team competitions focusing on the target grammar.
• Songs and Chants: Using rhythm and music to reinforce grammatical patterns.
• Physical Activities: Total Physical Response (TPR) or movement-based activities for kinesthetic learning.

Production Activities

• Role-plays and Simulations: Creating scenarios where the target structure is useful.
• Task-based Activities: Completing real-world tasks that naturally elicit the target grammar.
• Creative Writing: Stories, poems, or descriptions using the target structure.
• Discussions and Debates: Topics that naturally require the target grammar.
• Presentations: Short talks on topics that encourage use of the target structure.

3.6 Common Challenges and Solutions

Both vocabulary and grammar teaching present specific challenges that require thoughtful solutions:

Vocabulary Challenges

Challenge	Solution
Words with multiple meanings	Teach one meaning at a time; provide clear contexts; compare meanings.
Abstract concepts	Use examples, stories, visuals; relate to concrete experiences.
Collocations and phrasal verbs	Teach as chunks; highlight patterns; provide plenty of examples.
Retention problems	Implement spaced repetition; use multisensory techniques; create personal connections.
False friends (words similar to L1 but with different meanings)	Explicitly point out differences; create memorable comparisons.

Grammar Challenges

Challenge	Solution
Structures that don't exist in L1	Provide abundant examples; use visual aids; create meaningful practice opportunities.
Overuse of rules without understanding	Focus on meaning and use; provide authentic contexts; encourage noticing in texts.
Inconsistent application of rules	Highlight exceptions; provide guided practice; offer targeted feedback.
Gap between knowledge and production	Create communicative practice opportunities; provide scaffolded support; give processing time.
Fossilized errors	Provide focused correction; create awareness-raising activities; encourage self-monitoring.

3.7 Integrating Vocabulary and Grammar

While often taught separately, vocabulary and grammar are deeply interconnected. Effective teaching recognizes and leverages these connections:

Connection Points

• Lexical Phrases: Multi-word units that contain both vocabulary and grammatical patterns (e.g., "I'm looking forward to...").
• Colligation: The grammatical patterns that typically accompany specific words (e.g., "interested in," "afraid of").
• Grammatical Vocabulary: Words with primarily grammatical functions (prepositions, conjunctions, etc.).
• Word Formation: How grammatical processes create new vocabulary (e.g., affixation, compounding).

Integration Strategies

• Lexical Approach: Teaching "chunks" or formulaic sequences rather than isolated words or rules.
• Content-based Instruction: Teaching language through meaningful content that naturally combines vocabulary and grammar.
• Task-based Learning: Designing tasks that require both vocabulary knowledge and grammatical accuracy.
• Text-based Teaching: Using authentic texts as the basis for exploring both vocabulary and grammatical features.
• Noticing Activities: Guiding learners to notice how vocabulary and grammar work together in texts.

Sample Integrated Activities

• Vocabulary in Context: Analyzing how target words behave grammatically in authentic texts.
• Collocation Grids: Creating tables showing which words commonly combine with others.
• Sentence Builders: Providing sentence frames with slots for vocabulary items.
• Story Creation: Building stories using both target vocabulary and grammatical structures.
• Dictogloss: Reconstructing a text that contains target vocabulary and grammar.

3.8 Module Summary and Key Takeaways

• Vocabulary knowledge is multidimensional, involving form, meaning, and use, with both receptive and productive aspects.
• Effective vocabulary teaching involves careful selection, clear presentation, and varied practice opportunities.
• Vocabulary learning strategies empower learners to continue developing their lexical knowledge independently.
• Grammar teaching approaches range from explicit rule-based instruction to implicit acquisition through communication.
• The PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) framework provides a useful structure for grammar lessons.
• Both vocabulary and grammar teaching present specific challenges that require targeted solutions.
• Integrating vocabulary and grammar teaching reflects their natural connection in language use.

3.9 Assessment and Reflection

3.10 Additional Resources & Further Exploration

• Books:
  • Learning Vocabulary in Another Language – I.S.P. Nation
  • Teaching and Learning Vocabulary – Norbert Schmitt
  • How to Teach Grammar – Scott Thornbury
  • Grammar for English Language Teachers – Martin Parrott
• Websites:
  • Compleat Lexical Tutor – Vocabulary research and teaching tools
  • British Council: Teaching Vocabulary
  • Onestopenglish Grammar Resources
• Digital Tools:
  • Quizlet – For creating vocabulary flashcards and games
  • Wordwall – For interactive vocabulary and grammar activities
  • Grammarly – For grammar checking and learning